Research Methodology – FAQ

Research accuracy used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population and the sample.

Acculturation refers to the process of adapting to another culture, particularly in reference to blending in with the majority population [e.g., an immigrant adopting American customs]. However, acculturation also implies that both cultures add something to one another, but still remain distinct groups unto themselves.

It is a procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an individual’s feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.

Anonymity is a research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the identities of research participants.

Aggregate is a total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.

Baseline is a control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.

School of psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible, objective facts of behavior, rather than with subjective phenomena such as thoughts, emotions, or impulses. Contemporary behaviorism also emphasizes the study of mental states such as feelings and fantasies to the extent that they can be directly observed and measured.

Scopus is the number one abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed journals which contains more than 70 Million items like scientific articles, conference proceedings, book chapters, lecture notes, and books.

SCI: The Science Citation Index (SCI) is a citation index originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and created by Eugene Garfield.
SCI was officially launched in 1964. It is now owned by Thomson Reuters. SCI The SCImago Journal & Country Rank is a portal that includes the journals and country scientific indicators developed from the information contained in the Scopus database (Elsevier).

These indicators can be used to assess and analyze scientific domains. The larger version (Science Citation Index Expanded) covers more than 6,500 notable and significant journals, across 150 disciplines, from 1900 to the present.
These are alternately described as the world’s leading journals of science and technology, because of a rigorous selection process.
SCIE: The Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) is a bibliographic database originally created by Eugene Garfield, produced by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), and now owned by Thomson Reuters (TR). The company that releases the journal impact factor every year.

Benchmarking is systematically measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of organizations, systems, processes, etc., against agreed upon “best-in-class” frames of reference.

The SCImago Journal & Country Rank is a public site to identify scientific rankings of the journals and country. SCImango Rankings are used to analyse a good quality journal to publish. Also, This ranking system is powered by Scopus.

A loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.

The collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.

A statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way.

A common non-parametric statistical test compares an expected proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.

Random Sampling is a process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance, yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample according to a table of random numbers, or using a random-number computer generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order.

Random sample selection is used under the assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the probability that differences observed between participant groups are the result of the experimental intervention.

Cluster Analysis is a method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group data according to certain characteristics.

Emancipatory Research is conducted on and with people from marginalized groups or communities. It is led by a researcher or research team who is either an indigenous or external insider; is interpreted within intellectual frameworks of that group; and, is conducted largely for the purpose of empowering members of that community and improving services for them. It also engages members of the community as co-constructors or validators of knowledge.

A method to study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type of research is to comprehend the particular group/culture through immersion into the culture or group.

Research is completed through various methods but, since the researcher is immersed within the group for an extended period of time, more detailed information is usually collected during the research.

Null Hypothesis is the proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental intervention has “no effect,” meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to reject the null hypothesis.

Standard Deviation is a measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations in a given distribution.

It can be used to indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values when the distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.

Independent Variable is the conditions of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the researcher. A variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable, and that itself impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of “gender” and “academic major,” (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent variable.

Cohort Analysis is a group-by-group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].

The directional hypothesis is a one-tailed hypothesis that uses the characteristics of the independent variable’s effect on the dependent variable to predict the exact direction of the effect.

The non-directional hypothesis is a two-tailed hypothesis where the direction of prediction is not specified, In this, the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable

The alternative hypothesis states the effect of a relationship between one variable to another variable. In this, the result of the study is not due to the chance of occurrence in the study.

Data is factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.

Researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether a study’s data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be statistically significant.

If differences are found to be statistically significant, it means that the probability [likelihood] that these differences occurred solely due to chance is relatively low. Most researchers agree that a significance value of .05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability that the differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.

The basic observable entity or phenomenon being analyzed by a study and for which data are collected in the form of variables.

An experimental design with two or more randomly selected groups [an experimental group and control group] in which the researcher controls or introduces the independent variable and measures the dependent variable at least two times [pre- and post-test measurements].

A common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.

A multi-method or pluralistic approach, using different methods in order to focus on the research topic from different viewpoints and to produce a multi-faceted set of data. Also used to check the validity of findings from any one method.

Data Quality in research is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy] and reliable [dependable].

Dependent Variable is a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.

The probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance. The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].

Empirical Research is the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being researched.

Statistical Bias is the characteristics of an experimental or sampling design, or the mathematical treatment of data, that systematically affects the results of a study so as to produce incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.

The Research Framework is the structure and support that may be used as both the launching point and the on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.

Peer-Review is the process in which the author of a book, article, or another type of publication submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly research.

Statistical Analysis is an application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation, presentation, discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.

Inductive Analysis is a form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using inductive analysis starts with answers, but formulates questions throughout the research process.

Methodology is a theory or analysis of how research does and should proceed.

The Margin of Error is the permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific value. The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing circumstances in a study.

The sample is the population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to select a “sample population” that is considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred.
In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable, the sample size is critical, generally, the larger the number in the sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.

Sampling Error is the degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability.

Representative Sample is a sample in which the participants closely match the characteristics of the population, and thus, all segments of the population are represented in the sample. A representative sample allows results to be generalized from the sample to the population.

The questionnaire is the structured set of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather information, attitudes, or opinions.

Meta-Analysis is an analysis combining the results of several studies that address a set of related hypotheses.

Modeling is the creation of a physical or computer analogy to understand a particular phenomenon. Modeling helps in estimating the relative magnitude of various factors involved in a phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to account for unexpected behavior that has been observed, to predict certain behaviors, which can then be tested experimentally, and to demonstrate that a given theory cannot account for a certain phenomenon.

Mixed-Methods is a research approach that uses two or more methods from both the quantitative and qualitative research categories. It is also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or methodological triangulation.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical tool that is used to verify the mean of two or more than two groups that are significantly different from each other. ANOVA is used to check the significance of one or more factors by comparing the means of different parameters. This tool is used to analyze the variation present in an experiment.

Conflict of interest(COI) in research represents the situation where professional decisions regarding the primary responsibilities of a researcher may be at risk of being wrongly influenced by a secondary benefit, such as financial gain or career advancement. 
This influential activity, maybe knowing or unknowing, But, the existence of COI creates the trust issue with the research and research institute.

“Thesis” and “Dissertation” are the words often used in academia, which also lead to some confusion that what exactly each word means.
Thesis statements at primary argument and it tells supervisors to what you want to ascertain. It goes to all depth of topic throughout the thesis work and in the conclusion part, the topic and its finding are summarized.
Dissertation – Generally, described as a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. But, the usage of the word differs from two countries US and UK, that confusion reflects the rest of the world.

Read: Dissertation vs Thesis